北京林业大学专业
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2023年2月12日发(作者：)1
BuildingwithNature:insearchofresilientstormsurgeprotectionstrategies
Low-lying,denselypopulatedcoastalareasworldwideareunderthreat,requiringcoastalmanagerstodevelopnewstrategies
tocopewithlandsubsidence,sealevelriseandtheincreasingriskofstorm-surge-inducedfloods.
Traditionalengineeringapproachesoptimizingforsafetyareoftensuboptimalwithrespecttootherfunctionsandareneither
ypopulateddeltasinparticularneedmoreresilientsolutionsthatarerobust,sustainable,
adaptable,multifunctionalandyeteconomicallyfeasible.
Innaturalenvironments,flood-inducedinundationsmayberegularandbeneficialphenomenathatbringnewsedimentand
nutrientsontotheland,elypopulatedpartsoftheworld,however,
flood‗fightagainstwater‘,dikes,barriers
andotherhardstructureshavebecomecommoninstruments,focusingprimarilyontheareatobeprotectedratherthanonthe
watersystem.
Onceflooddefencetechnologyhadbecomesufficientlyreliable,demographicandeconomicdriversledpeopletosettlein
andextendtheprotectedareas,thusenhancingthepotentialriskofcasualtiesanddamagesifthedefencesarebroken,
Oneoftheseisthatthebarrierblocksallsedimenttransport,inorout,thusmorphologicallyseparatingtheestuaryfromthe
tance,theouterdeltawilltendtorisewiththerisingsea
level,butthebedinthebasinbehindthebarrierwillnotbecauseofthelackofsedimenttransport.
tragicconsequencesofHurricaneKatrinaontheGulfCoast,andinNewOrleansinparticular,havehighlightedthe
importanceofaddressingecosystemservices—suchasthestormsurgeprotectionthatwetlandsprovide—inmanagement
decisionsinvolvingcoastalsettlementandinfrastructurepolicies
NewapproacheshavebeeninstitutionalizedinDutchflooddefencepolicies(VanderBruggeetal.2005)withcampaigns
suchas‗livingwithwater‘and‗increasingtheresilienceofourflooddefences‘
recentlyissuedapositionpaperonits‗WorkingwithNature‘approach,whichisdescribedas‗anintegratedprocesswhich
identifiesandexploitswin–winsolutionswithrespecttonature,whichareacceptabletobothprojectproponentsand
environmentalstakeholders‘
Thevariousapproachesmentionedabovehaveemergedfromscientificdiscoursesthataimtoreframetherelationship
econdhalfofthetwentiethcentury,theEnlightenmentideal
ofsubduingnatureforthebenefitofmankindwasrejectedinrecognitionoftheneedtomitigatethenegativeimpactsof
thesepositions,however,assumeaboundarybetweenmankindandnature
discoursesstartfromthepremisethathumansarepartofthenaturalsystem.
Fig.1ThethreeperspectivesoftheBuildingwithNatureprogramme
TheBuildingwithNatureinnovationprogrammeusesatriangletodepicttherelationshipbetweenthethreesubsystemsthat
arerelevantincoastalprotection:thebioticandabioticenvironment,man-madeinfrastructuresandthegovernanceof
society(Fig.1).Thenaturalsystemencompasseshydro-morphologicalprocesses(sedimentationanderosion,water-and
wind-inducedsedimenttransport)andecologicalprocesses(foodwebs,theinfluenceofbioengineering)inthecoastalzone.
Theengineeringsystemrepresentsallhumaninterventionsthataimtoinfluencethenaturalsystem(dams,dikes,groins,
harbours,shippinglanes,reclamationprojects,etc.).Thesocietalsystemrepresentstheinstitutionalside,bothformal(laws,
regulations,standards,decision-makingstructuresandstakeholderinvolvement)andinformal(politicalpower,networks,
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agreementsandestablishedpractices).Thestateofacoastalprotectionschemeistheresultofinteractionsbetweenthese
threesubsystems.
Ifsystemvariablesorenvironmentalconditionsthatinduceslowsystemchanges(drift)areoverlooked,thesystemmay
undergocrises(Holling1998)orcriticaltransitions.
Inthisconceptualframework,weusethreeelementsofsocio-ecologicalsystems:resilience,sociallearningandtheuseof
stelementofourconceptualframeworkisresilience,definedasthecapacityofadynamicsystem
toabsorbshockswhilemaintainingitsstructureandfunctioning.
Aresilientinfrastructureisabletoadapttochangingconditionsthatinfluencesafetythresholdsorstandardsinthelongrun.
Incontrast,traditionalengineeringworks(dams,dikes,etc.)areusuallydesignedtowithstandeventswithagiven
probabilityofoccurrenceatthetimeoftheirconstructionandacceptfailureundermoresevereconditions.
Thethirdelementofourconceptualframeworkisthecapabilitytoproducerobustecosystemgoodsandservices,which
‗representthebenefitshumanpopulationsderive,directlyorindirectly,fromecosystemfunctions‘
Takingthe“Waste”Outof“Wastewater”forHumanWaterSecurityandEcosystemSustainability
Humanscreatevastquantitiesotingof
waterposessustainabilitychallenges,depletesenergyreserves,andundermineshumanwatersecurityandecosystemhealth.
2.7billionlackaccesstosanitation,andmanymillionsdieeachyearfrompreventablewaterbornediseases.
Waterusecanbeclassifiedasconsumptiveornonconsumptive,dependingonhowreadilytheusedwatercanbereused.
onofthewaterusedforirrigation,forexample,is
evaporated,transpired,andincorporatedintoplantbiomass.
Incontrast,afternonconsumptiveuse,watercanbecaptured,treated,consumptiveusedegradesthe
qualityofthewater(forexample,byaddingcontaminants),itissaidtogeneratewastewater.
Inprinciple,domesticwastewatercanbecollected,treatedtoremovehumanpathogensandothercontaminants,andthen
ly,thelargestconsumptiveuseofwaterisforagriculture,whereasthe
largestnonconsumptiveuseofwaterisforindustrialandmunicipalsupplies.
Addressingthreatstohumanwatersecurityandbiodiversitywillrequiregettingthemostoutoflocallyavailablewater
tdoesthatmeaninpractice?Onewaytoevaluatewateruseistoconsiderits―productivity,‖definedas
thevalueofgoodsandservicesproducedperunitofwaterused.
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Fig.1(Left)Threecomplemeerlevelineach
glasstutionuseslower-qualitywater
rationtransformslower-qualitywaterintohigher-qualitywaterby
ionachehypothetical
examples,eachoptioncutsbyhalftheuseofhigher-qualitywaterandthereforedoublesitsproductivity.
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Potablesubstitutioncanalsobeimplementedatneighborhoodandsingle-homescales(Fig.2).Rainwater(fromroofs)and
graywater(fromlaundry,dishwashing,andbathing)canbeusedinplaceofdrinkingwaterforavarietyofactivities.
Theenergycost,watersavings,andreliabilityassociatedwithrainwaterharvestingdependonengineeringconsiderations
(e.g.,contributingroofareaandstoragetankvolume),localclimate,connectedenduses(e.g.,toilet,laundry,andhotwater),
andtemporalpatterns(10).InacasestudyofamodelhomeinMelbourne,Australia,theuseofrainwatertankstosupply
waterforlaundry,dishwashing,toilets,andanoutsidegardenreducedhouseholdmunicipalwateruseby40%(9).
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Fig.2
Practicalexamplesofsubstitution(A),regeneration(B),andreduction(C)tutionincludes
wateringagardenwithrainwaterfromarainwatertankandflushingtoiletsandwashinglaundrywithtreatedstormwater
eneration,awastestabilizationpond(WSP)transformssewagefromthehouseinto
ionincludesrepairingleaksinthewaterdistributionsystem,drip
irrigation,adual-flushtoilet,alow-flowshowerrose,aterinfrastructureelements
shownincludeaconventionaldrinkingwaterplant(DWTP);aconventionalwastewatertreatmentplant(WWTP);andariver
diversion(supplyingtheorchard).
Stormwaterrunofffromroadsandotherimpermeablesurfacesisanotherlocallyavailablesourceofwater,butherethe
challengeisharvestingandstoringtherunoff(whichcanbegeneratedoververyshortperiodsoftime)andadequately
removingcontaminants(pathogens,metals,andorganicpollutants).Thesechallengescanbeovercomethroughthe
integrationofnaturaltreatmentsystemsintotheurbanlandscape,includinggreenroofs,raingardens,biofilters,and
constructedwetlands.
Plantsplayakeyrole,takingupexcessnutrientsandservingasbothasourceoforganiccarbontofueldenitrification,anda
ffmovesthroughnaturaltreatmentsystems,a
portionofthewaterreturnstotheatmosphere(evapotranspiration);aportioninfiltratesintothesubsurface(groundwater
recharge);andtherestcanbeharvested,stored,andultimatelyusedfornonpotablepurposes.
includingstormwaterreuseschemesinnewgreenfieldandbrownfielddevelopmentsuntil2050couldresultinasevenfold
increaseinnonpotablewateravailabilityforthecity(35Glyear−1or9.8%ofmunicipalwateruse)(16).
Integratingnaturaltreatmentsystemsintourbanlandscapesconfersmanybenefitsbeyondimprovinghumanwatersecurity.
Inwarmerclimates,theevapotranspirationofrunoffmoderatestheurbanheatislandeffect,whereasinfiltrationrecharges
thegroundwaterandprovidesenvironmentalwaterforlocalwetlandsandriparianzones.
Theconstructionofnewwetlandsorreinvigorationofexistingwetlandscreateshabitatsforresidentandmigratoryspecies
andsustainsbiodiversitybyenhancinghabitatheterogeneity,connectivity,andfoodwebsupport(18).Whenstormwateris
locallydetainedandretainedthroughoutthecatchment,lessrunoffentersriversandstreams,pollutantloadsarereduced,and
flowregimesmorecloselyresemblepredevelopmentconditions(19).
Amongthecentralizedoptionsforaugmentingpotablewatersupplies,potablereuseispreferabletointerbasinwater
transfersforseveralreasons(25):(i)Interbasinwatertransfersreducethewateravailableatthesourceforcritical
ecosystemsandagriculturalproduction;(ii)transportingwateroverlongdistancescanbeenergy-and
carbon-footprint–intensive;and(iii)thewatertransmissionsystemsarevulnerabletodisruptionbynaturalandhuman-made
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disasters,suchasearthquakesandactsofterrorism.
Thedepletionofsourcewatersinthestatehasledtohabitatdeterioration,thedeclineandextinctionofnativefishspecies,
thenear-collapseoftheSacramento–SanJoaquinRiverDeltaecosystem(27),andthedesiccationofOwensLake,whosedry
lakebedisarguablythesinglelargestsourceofasthma-andcancer-inducingrespirablesuspendedparticlesintheUnited
States(28).
Primaryconcernsassociatedwithwastewaterreuseincludethebuildupofcontaminantsandsaltsinsoils(inthecaseof
wastewaterirrigation)andthepossibilitythatincompleteremovalofchemicalormicrobiologicalhazardsduringtreatment
maycausediseaseinanexposedpopulation.
TheenergysituationanditssustainabledevelopmentstrategyinChina
能源状况及其在中国的可持续发展战略
ThesetrendsaremostlikelytocontinuewithChina‘
addresstheseproblemsandalsorespondtoincreasingworldpressureforreductionofgreenhousegasemissions,theChinese
governmentplansandhaslegislatedpromotionofenergyconservation,efficiency,renewableenergytechnologiesanduse,
andreductionofenergy-relatedenvironmentalimpactstoreduceenergyintensityby20%duringthe2006－2010period,
andtoreducetheCO2emission/GDPratioby40-45%by2020relativeto2005.
这些趋势很可能继续按照中国的计划来实现其社会和经济发展的目标。要解决这些问题,并针对世界日益减少的温室
气体排放量的压力做出回应,中国政府计划和已经立法规定,在2006年至2010年期间,促进节能、高效、可再生能
源技术和使用,并减少能源相关的环境影响,降低能源强度20%,并打算2020年同比2005年减少二氧化碳排放/GDP
比率由40-45%到。
Itisrecognizedthatenergydevelopmentmust,however,followasustainablepathtocoordinateeconomygrowth,social
development,andenvironmentalprotection.
这是认识到必须进行能源发展,无论如何,都要遵循一个可持续发展的协调经济增长、社会发展、环境保护的道路。
Energyisoneofthemosathtowardsthe
establishmentofamoreaffluentsocietyforChina‘s1.3billionpeople,energyisthusofsignificantimportancetoeconomic
ong-termandformidabletasktoaccomplishsustainabledevelopmentoftheeconomy
alongsidethesustainabledevelopmentofenergy,furthernotingthatsustainabledevelopmentinChinawillplayanimportant
roleinthatoftheworld.
能源,对人类的发展,甚至生存是最重要的基本要素之一。在通往为中国13亿人口建立一个更富裕的社会,能量对于
经济和社会发展是这样重要。这是一项长期而艰巨的任务来实现经济的可持续发展和可持续发展的能源,进一步指出
中国在世界可持续发展上起着重要的作用,。
AsChinaisintheprocessofrapidindustrialization,urbanizationandmodernization,itisexpectedthatenergyconsumption
l-basedenergyproductionandconsumptionenergysystem,however,facesmany
significantproblems,suchasshortagesofresources,lowenergyefficiency,highemissionsandenvironmentaldamage,and
lackofeffectivemanagementsystems.
随着中国快速工业化、城市化和现代化的进程,预计能源消耗将不断提高。燃煤能源生产和消费的能源系统,然而,
面临许多重要的问题,比如资源的短缺,低能源效率、高排放和环境破坏,以及缺乏有效的管理系统。
Chinahasbynowestablishedacomprehensiveenergyindustrysystemincludingtheentirechainfromenergyexploration,
exploitation,transportation,storage,processingandconversion,researchanddevelopment,design,equipmentmanufacturing,
constructionandengineeringservices.
中国到目前为止已经建立了一个全面的能源产业系统包括整个链从能源勘探、开采、运输、储存、加工和转换、研
究与开发、设计、设备制造、建筑和工程服务。
ThecurrentenergysituationinChinacanbedescribedasthatofmultiformenergyresourceswithlowpercapita
possessionquantities;rapidgrowthofenergyconsumptionwithrelativelylowenergyefficiencyandheavyenvironmental
impactswithcoalasthemainprimaryenergysource.
当前的能源形势在中国可以被描述为各种形式的能源资源与低人均占有数量;快速增长的能源消耗与相对较低的能
源效率和以煤为主要能源带来的沉重的环境影响。
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theeconomicdevelopmentandtheenergyresourcedistributionarehighlyunevenacrossthecountry,energytransportation,
especiallyforcoal,laysaheavyburdenonthenationaltransportationnetwork,andtransportation-relatedcostandpollution
increaseconsiderablytheend-useenergycostandenvironmentalimpact.
经济发展和能源资源分布非常不均匀,全国各地能源运输,尤其是对煤,造成了沉重的负担,美国国家运输网络和交通
运输业成本和污染的最终用途大大增加能量消耗和环境影响。
Theexploitationratewas,however,only29.9%attheendof2008,muchlowerthantheaveragelevelof60%inthe
advancedcountries.66.7%ofthetotalexploitablepotentialresourcesarelocatedintheSouthwest(Sichuan,Chongqing,
Yunnan,Guizhou,Tibet)withanexploitationrateofonly14.4%.
开采率,然而,只有2008年末的29.9%,远远低于发达国家平均水平的60%。66.7%的总可利用的潜在资源位于西南四
川、重庆、云南、贵州、西藏)与一个开发率只有14.4%。
Landslidehazardstriggeredbythe2008Wenchuan
earthquake,Sichuan,China
滑坡灾害引发的2008年汶川地震、中国四川
Thelevelswerecreatedbycomprehensivelyanalyzingthecapacityoflandslidelakes,theheightoflandslidedams,andthe
picenterareawhichwas300kmlongand10kmwide
alongthemainseismicfault,therewerelotsoflandslidestriggeredbytheearthquake,
由全面分析滑坡的能力湖泊、高度的滑坡坝、堵塞河道的材料的成分和结构创造的这一级别。在震中地区300公里
长,10公里宽沿主要地震断层,有很多地震引发的山体滑坡。
Fieldevidencesillustratedthattheverticalcomponentofgroundshakinghadasignificanteffectonbothbuildingcollapse
undmotionrecordsshowthattheverticalaccelerationisgreaterthanthehorizontal,andthe
accelerationmustbelargerthan1.0ginsomepartsalongthemainseismicfault.
现场证据说明垂直分量的地面震动对建筑物倒塌和山体滑坡代有一个显著的效应。地面运动的记录显示,垂直加速度
大于水平，在某些部分沿着主要地震断层加速度一定大于1.0g。
IntensecompressivemovementbetweentheQinghai-TibetPlateauandSichuanBasinhasgeneratedmanystrong
egionwithoneofthesteepestslope-gradientzonesintheworld.
青藏高原和四川盆地之间强烈的抗压运动产生了许多强大的地震。它是世界上一个最陡的山坡坡度地区
Thisreflectstheeffectsofearthquaketriggeredshakingonhighandsteepslopesinmountainousareaswhereobvious
amplificationeffectsatmountainpeakandridgesresultedinnumerousoccurrencesofrockfalls.
这反映了在高和陡峭的斜坡在山区地震引发的震动的影响,在山峰和山脊这种影响被明显的放大导致大量出现的落
石。
Differingfromotherintenseearthquakesintheplainarea,thecasualtiescausedbylandslides,rockfalls,anddebrisflows
wereverylargeintheWenchuanearthquake-affectedarea.
不同于在平原地区其他强烈的地震,汶川灾区区由山体滑坡、泥石流、落石造成的伤亡非常大的。
Amainseismicfaultrupturezonewasformedwithinthetown,resultingindamagedbuildingsthatwerelocatedonthefault
orincloseproximitytothefault.
在城镇形成一个主要的地震断层破裂带,这是导致位于断层或靠近断层而损坏建筑物。
Atthetoepartofthelandslidedeposit,upheavaloccurredatthegroundsurfacealongthemainstreet,whichwasthoughtto
berelatedtothethrustscarpresultingfrommovementontheearthquakefault.
在滑坡沉积物下端部分,剧变发生在沿着大街的地面,这被认为是在地震断层与推力崖造成运动。
Agreatnumberofrockfalls,debrisflows,andothertypesoflandslidesweretriggeredbytheWenchuanearthquake,which
seriouslyblockedthestreamchannels.
Itisobviousthatthevolumeandslidingdistancesoflandslidesalongtheearthquakefaultarelargerandlongerthanothers
andthattheearthquakefaultzonewastheareawherethespatialdensityoflandslidedammedlakeswasthegreatest.
由汶川地震引起的大量的落石、泥石流和其他类型的山体滑坡,严重阻塞流渠道。很明显,沿地震断层山体滑坡比其
他的体积和滑动距离更大,地震断裂带是山体滑坡形成的阻塞湖泊空间密度最大的区域。
GlobalHydrologicalCyclesandWorldWaterResources
Althoughcurrentglobalwithdrawalsarewellbelowtheupperlimit,morethantwobillionpeopleliveinhighly
water-stressedareasbecauseoftheunevendistributionofRFWRintimeandspace.
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Climatechangeisexuldslowdownthe
increaseofpeoplelivingunderwaterstress;however,changesinseasonalpatternsandincreasingprobabilityofextreme
eventsmayoffsetthiseffect.
Theamountofwaterwillnotdiminishonshorterthangeologicaltimescales(1).Giventhisbackground,howcouldwater
scarcitybecomeawidespreadrealitywithinafewdecades(2).
AcommonexplanationisthateventhoughthereisalotofwateronEarth,onlyabout2.5%isfreshwater,andbecausemost
ofthatwaterisstoredasglaciersordeepgroundwater,swerisonly
partlycorrect:Ratherthanlookingonlyatthestocksofwaterresources,assessmentsshouldconcentratemainlyontheflows.
Whenitevaporates,ssimilatedduring
photosynthesisbecomespartofcarbohydratesstoredinplants,butultimatelyrevertstowateragainbydecomposition.
Meanresidencetimesofwatermolecules—i.e.,howlongtheystayinagivenreservoir—canbeestimatedbydividingthe
volumeofthereservoirbythemeanfluxintoandoutofit.
Whenwaterisextractedfromsuchanaquifer,itwilltakeaverylongtime,measuredonahumantimescale,toreturntothe
originalvolumestored;inpractice,thatwaterisexhaustedonceithasbeenused.
Becauseittooksolongtoaccumulate,thegroundwaterinsuchaquifersissometimescalledfossilwater.
EventhoughRFWRisnaturallyrecycled,thecirculationrateisdeterminedbytheclimatesystem,andthereisanupperlimit
totheamountofRFWRavailabletohumansociety.
Inthatsense,precipitationminor
partofthisavailableRFWRissurfacewater,particularlyriverdischarge.
Incontrasttotheconventionalview,ithasbeennotedthatevapotranspirationfromnonirrigatedcroplandalsoisawater
inguishbetweenthiskindofresourceandconventionalresources,
evapotranspirationflowhasbeennamedgreenwater,andconventionalwithdrawalfromriversandgroundwaterhasbeen
namedbluewater.
themonthlymeandischargeattheObidosstationintheAmazonRiverdiffersbyafactorof2betweenthehighestandthe
lowestmonths,evenforclimatologicallyaveragedvalues.
Annualrunoff(Fig.2A)canbeconsideredasthemaximumavailableRFWRifwaterfromupstreamcannotbereused
downstreambecauseofconsumptiveuseorwaterpollution.
RiverdischargecanbeconsideredasthepotentiallymaximumavailableRFWRifallthewaterfromupstreamcanbeused.
Recentadvancesininformationtechnologieshaveenabledglobalwater-balanceestimationsatfinerspatialresolution.
Waterwithdrawalsnowcanbedistributedintogridboxes,usingthedistributionsofpopulationandtheirrigationareaas
proxies,andcomparedwiththeavailableRFWRineachgridbox.
Intheeraofthe‗‗Anthropocene‘‘,wherehumanimpactsonnaturalprocessesarelargeandwidespread,itnolongermakes
sensetostudyonlynaturalhydrologicalcycles.
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waterdemandforfoodandindustrialpr
tradeiscalled‗‗virtualwatertrade‘‘.
Theweightoftradedgoodsisnormallyjustasmallfraction,suchas1/100to1/1000,oftheweightofthewaterrequiredto
producethatgoods,sotransportinggoodsisconsiderablyeasierthantransportingthewateritself.
Problemsofwater,food,health,andpovertyareinterlinkedinmanydevelopingcountries,particularlyintheregionswhere
freshwaterresourcesarescarce,thelocaleconomyistooweaktoallowimportoffoodfromoutsideonalargescale,and
desalinationplantsareimpracticaltoimplement.
Wample,anexpectedgrowthofmeat
consumptionwillincreasethewaterdemandforfodderproduction.
Theultimateobjectivesoffuture-orientedworldwaterresourceassessmentsaretoshowtheinternationalcommunitywhat
willhappenifwecontinuetomanageourwaterresourcesaswedotodayandtoindicatewhatactionsmaybeneededto
preventundesirableoutcomes.
cropyieldperareaincreasedbyafactorof2.3,morethantherateofpopulationgrowth(2.0),andthetotalcropyield
increasedbyafactorof2.4,eventhoughtheareaofcroplandincreasedbyonly10%andharvestedareaincreasedlessthan
that.
Thisphenomenalgrowthwastoalargeextentduetoadoublingoftheirrigationareaandtheirrigationinadditiontothe
increasedusageoffertilizer.
Akeychallengeforthesecountriesshouldbehowtoimplementsoftmeasures(suchaslegislation,policies,andmarket
mechanisms)inadditiontotechnicalonestosimultaneouslyincreasethesupplyandmanagethedemandwisely.
toacceleratetheglobalhydrologicalcycles,ranspirationwillnotincrease
asmuchasprecipitationgloballybecauseelevatedCO2concentrationinducesstomataclosureandreducestranspiration(33),
andriverdischargewillincreaseonglobalscalebecauseoftheincreasedprecipitationandthereducedtranspiration.
Furthermore,precipitationwillbecomemoreintenseandintermittent,andtherisksoffloodsanddroughtswillincrease,
sometimesinthesameregionoftheworld.
WatercyclesonEarthcannowbemeasuredandsimulatedonfinertemporalandspatialscaleswithdetailedmodelsofeach
hydrologicalprocess,andthecurrentandfuturestatusoftheglobalwatersystemcanbeillustrated.